In the student sample and population sample 1, respondents were asked to evaluate each vignette via an 11-point rating scale. The reference category is the dimension level without vocational degree. Rev. doi: 10.1177/0730888417753048, Whitmeyer, J. M. (2004). Res. Development of theory History Gender Pay Gap (1972) and Jasso (1978) to derive hypotheses about the direction and size of a just gender pay gap in observers' evaluations. You can help correct errors and omissions. Therefore, they also experience gender inequalities in other contexts. It therefore provides a continuation of the research initiated by Jasso and Webster (1997, 1999) with new empirical evidence. doi: 10.1007/s11577-010-0123-0, Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Schupp, J. (28, Conley). Positive values indicate a gap favoring male vignette persons and negative values indicate a gap favoring female vignette persons. Using factorial surveys to study justice perceptions: five methodological problems of attitudinal justice research. The status value is not an intrinsic feature of a characteristic (in this case, gender) but attached to the characteristic by generally shared beliefs. Framework, models, and quantities. Distributions of justice evaluations by sample. The respondents in the population samples were sampled in different regions in Germany with differing degrees of earnings inequality between men and women. Figure 3 shows the transformed b-coefficients of the regression models with the 95% confidence bars for each sample by gender. Along with the theoretical framework, presented is a WebConflict Theory. Given the assumption that the process can be defined as a gender bias in the referential structure, it is likely that one will find gender gaps in just earnings in evaluators judgments who are themselves embedded in gender-unequal structures, while it is likely that people who experience less gender inequality do not have these biased structures. The subjective gender bias in evaluations of earnings describes complementary differences in justice evaluations of men and women. Lohngerechtigkeit und Geschlechterdiskriminierung. This reflects differing referential structures with higher referential earnings of observers from high-income federal states. doi: 10.1016/j.postcomstud.2013.03.007, Hobler, D., and Pfahl, S. (2019). Res. The factorial survey is a survey experiment that presents the respondents brief descriptions of persons or situations that consist of dimensions (e.g., gender, occupation, education) that vary experimentally in their levels. 79, 226246. doi: 10.1177/001979390606000103. The gender pay gap has been observed for decades, and still exists. Hypothesis 1. 9. (2009, 2011, 2014). doi: 10.18723/diw_wb:2020-10-3, Alves, W. M., and Rossi, P. H. (1978). The first model only considers respondents under the age of thirty; the second model restricts the analysis sample to respondents with a higher secondary school degree. WebThe Gender Conflict theory is essentially Marxist in nature, where the male figures are positioned at the upper echelon and the female figures are at the lower part. Inq. The results in Table 7 provide information on the overall difference between respondents in the student sample and the population samples. 26, 132150. I 've only covered a few of the issues that it creates, and there are many more. It is only through the breaking of these gender roles and conventions - from both men being willing to defer to the wills of women and women having the strength of deviate from their given roles and demanding better treatment, that these toxic definitions of masculinity and femininity can be, Once women began entering the working world an issue arose from the gender based wages. Thus, actors who experience gender inequality are more likely to activate a gender-biased referential structure in justice evaluations and therefore (unconsciously) perceive gender differences as legitimate. The results are presented in Table 8. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. Sociol. The figure shows how much more (in percentages) the fair earnings would be for male vignette persons compared to female vignette persons. WebGender pay gap The gender gap pay is an analysis of the stratification of the intersection based on gender. All three of these theories have different perspectives on why gender exists. Gender Gap Theory Copyright 2020 Sauer. Liebig, S., Sauer, C., and Friedhoff, S. (2015). What do you see as some of the pros and cons of placing a child with ADHD on medication? Sociol. If this is true, the difference between students and general populations reported in previous studies should still be detectable with more recent data, and the differences should be generalizable to other subpopulations that are prone to higher or lower gender inequality. The gender wage gap refers to the difference in earnings between women and men. To learn about the content of these factors, theories that provide substantive predictions are useful. doi: 10.1007/BF02683292, Kugler, K. G., Reif, J. As in the previous model, the effect of the gender dimension is negative, indicating rating behavior preferring male recipients. I argue that the gender bias in justice evaluations of earnings is an experience-based bias that mirrors the gender inequality of the structural context in which individuals are mainly embedded. However, with the current formulation of the workplace policies and regulation, both the, gender is being paid based on the ability and merit to deliver and perform (. The status value theory of distributive justice (Berger et al., 1972) and the justice evaluation theory (Jasso, 1978) highlight the importance of comparison processes within distributive justice judgements that rely on referential structures. Inequality lasts because those who control the unbalanced portion of societys supplies; forcefully defend their benefits. Experimental plans in factorial surveys: random or quota design? The study assumed that actual gender inequalities lead to biased referential structures that typically associate men with higher earnings. Soc. University of Maryland, University College, Sociological Research on Gender Pay Gap.docx, Social Problems Of Poverty and Inequality.edited.docx, Assignment 2 - Sociological Imagination and the Future of Work/Education. Under the assumption of biased referential structures, it can be predicted under which structural conditions gender is likely to be a status characteristic and thereby a relevant factor in the justice evaluation process formulated in Equation (3). Under the structural condition of gender inequality, it is likely that gender has status value. 65:100473. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100473. In 2022, women earned an average of 82% of what men earned, according to a new Pew Research Center analysis of median hourly earnings of both full- and part-time workers. Res. The Gender Wage Gap Endures in the U.S. | Pew Research Center In Germany, the gender differences in earnings have remained persistently high over the last decade (Hobler and Pfahl, 2019) in comparison to other European countries. (1997). Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Sauer, C. (2015). Gender Differences in Social Interaction, 24. (1972), the vignette dimensions are the characteristics of the recipient, and the gross earnings are the goal object. Beliefs about inequality and perceptions of distributive justice. Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. Sociol. HUM210 - Introduction to Women and Gender Studies - Course Goal, Description, Learning Topics & Outcomes, 2. Therefore, their approach is normative in that it prescribes changes to the power structure, advocating a balance of power between genders. In the computer-assisted personal interviews, the interviewers gave the laptop to the respondents and sat opposite them to preclude having the opportunity to view the evaluations. The hypothesis refers to the question of the sign of a just gender pay gap. With respect to this feature, factorial surveys have an advantage over justice measures of individuals' own earnings, as gender can be modeled as uncorrelated with other recipient's characteristics, e.g., occupational status and gross earnings, which are correlated in the real world. The following sections provide the theoretical background of the paper and then introduce the data and present and discuss the findings in light of the literature. The factorial survey as a method for measuring sensitive issues, in Improving Survey Methods: Lessons From Recent Research, eds U. Engel, B. Jann, P. Lynn, A. Scherpenzeel, and P. Sturgis (New York, NY: Routledge), 137149. Gender Wage Gap 21, 106144. However, reflexive justice judgments are based on individuals' own outcomes and are therefore driven by two forces, justice deliberations and self-interest (Younts and Mueller, 2001). The vignettes of the student sample and population sample 1 were additionally presented in random order for each respondent. The outcome variable in the following regression models is the z-standardized justice evaluation per vignette. Despite the changes we have already made in the world, we have not completely solve the problem of gender stratification. In these negotiations it is on the one hand important for employees to formulate claims that yield an appropriate outcome, and on the other hand, supervisors have to evaluate these claims as legitimate. doi: 10.1007/s11211-013-0182-2, Schomaker, C. (2010a). To test this underlying assumption, longitudinal data would be useful to separate changes in justice attitudes with respect to gender from differences between observers. Each vignette provided information on at least the gender, age, education, and occupation of the recipient described, among other dimensions in more complex vignettes, together with gross earnings. Models 5 and 6 show the coefficients for population sample 2. While fighting over control of these resources, these groups and individuals develop their own interests. Finally, the effect of gross earnings is positive: the more a vignette person earns, the more often respondents rated this person as over-rewarded, holding other dimensions equal. Zeitschrift fr Soziologie 38, 350357. Stratificat. The Conflict Perspective by Boundless, Boundless Sociology, http://oer2go.org/mods/en-boundless/www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/index.html is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Gender And Conflict Theory And The Gender Pay Gap | 123 Help doi: 10.1515/zfsoz-2009-0501, Shepelak, N. J., and Alwin, D. F. (1986). A drastic paradigm shift is necessary in order to change these social norms, and this is exactly what the Teachers Pension Plan is aiming for. In this population, it is less likely that gender has status value and therefore is not a relevant characteristic within the justice evaluation process. Edited by Anita Badejo and Marc Georges. doi: 10.2307/2095239, Jasso, G. (1981). Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions by age and education (all samples). This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The gender pay gap has been observed for decades, and still exists. The questionnaires consisted of the factorial survey module and additional questions on attitudes (after the factorial survey module) and questions on the socio-demographic background of the parents and students' personal situation. Jasso and Webster (1997) found a so-called just gender pay gapthe difference between earnings evaluated as just for male and female recipientsin a re-analysis of a factorial survey study conducted by Jasso and Rossi in 1974 (Jasso and Rossi, 1977). SOEPpaper No. I acknowledge funding from the German Research Foundation (grant number: HI 680-4-1) and the Dutch Research Foundation (grant number: 4510-17-024). This research has limitations. However, following the work of Berger et al. As is standard in the gender wage gap literature on transition countries, adjusted gender wage gaps are greater than raw gaps. The models for the different samples are provided in Table 7. Thus. In addition, the propaganda of feminism and denying men by women and stereotyping them by enemies of all women causes many conflicts between two genders which however have to live peacefully and in harmony. If women keep advancing and taking away their jobs, then these men feel insecure and men are inclined to penalize these progressing women., Conflict theory sees society as a dynamic unit constantly changing as a result of competing for scarce resources. Jasso, G., and Webster, M. (1997). 62, 367380. 83, 13981419. Figure 2 shows the distributions of justice evaluations by dataset. J. J. Educ. Rev. 16, 827840. This study investigated justice evaluations of earnings for male and female employees and linked them to actual inequalities. Past and future applications of Jasso's justice theory. The interaction effect eliminates the main effect of gender, meaning that gender is a relevant characteristic for young people or people with higher secondary education who are not students but has no impact on judgments when respondents are students. WebThere is Functionalism, this plays a part because different parts, there are political influences and government role in wage determination. Before a person can define their standpoint on a topic, he or she must first consider if the issues exist., Women have long been oppressed in society, and this oppression has translated into segregation in the workforce for a long time. With Mary Wilson and Rikki Novetsky. The gap exists as a universal between the genders, and it exists within the vast majority of occupations. The gender wage gap 101: The basics - Economic Policy Institute Statistische Monatshefte Rheinland-Pfalz 6, 440447. Sociol. Soc. Additional analyses with all respondentsnot restricted to employed respondentssimilar to those presented in Table 8 revealed mixed results. How Expectations Organize Behavior, eds J. Berger and M. J. Zelditch (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass), 215261. Blau, F. D., and Kahn, L. M. (2003). Moreover, the findings can be useful for inequality research, as justice attitudes reinforce actual inequalities. The assumption is that contexts shape justice attitudes, meaning that students and employees change their attitudes as they come into other contexts. The results show that male and female students did not produce a just gender pay gap with their evaluations. Reward-relevant characteristics are those that entitle someone to receive a certain amount of rewards. - Argues There are 3 Fatal Flaws in the Gender as a Social Construct" Position, Adam Groza & Benjamin Arbour, 3 Fatal Flaws in the Gender as a Social Construct Position, https://erlc.com/resource-library/articles/3-fatal-flaws-in-the-gender-as-social-construct-position/, 20. Status characteristics divide trait carriers into status-high and status-low individuals and entitle status-high individuals to receive higher rewards. As these findings were replicated with two independent surveys, it is likely that these are reliable results. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World. 45, 332. These findings resemble the results presented above and emphasize that it is likely that it is not the differences in age and education but the social contexts in which people are embedded and spend a crucial part of their lives. In the student sample, the effect of gender on the justice evaluation is insignificant, which indicates that minor importance is attached to this dimension. Psychol. There exist regional differences in the gender pay gap. Theories of Gender: Crash Course Sociology (1985) distinguish three types of referential structures: categorical referential structures are based on who you are, ability referential structures are based on what you can do, and performance-outcome referential structures are based on what you have done. Reward expectations theory implies that categorical, ability and performance-outcome characteristics may together determine reward expectations and therefore justice evaluations. Table 5. The impartiality (Jasso et al., 2019) of these reflexive judgments is therefore hardly given. (2008). While it seems as though there may never come a day in which all people receive equal treatment by everyone they encounter, at the very least they should receive equality by their governing bodies and from their employers. 25 Jahre Sozio-oekonomisches Panel - ein Infrastrukturprojekt der empirischen Sozial- und Wirtschaftsforschung in Deutschland. Jann, B. Health Econ. Until relatively recently, women in Western cultures could not vote or hold property, making them entirely dependent on men. Soc. 42, 639651. Conflict theorists would investigate how the interests of dominant groups create gender norms and roles, as well as how these roles help to sustain the status quo and strengthen social hierarchies. Sociol. This means that people compare the rewards of specific people (either themselves in reflexive judgments or others in non-reflexive judgments) to a generalized other that represents a typical other for the specific comparison, e.g., a car mechanic or a teacher at a public school. It is commonly calculated by dividing womens wages by mens wages, and this ratio is often expressed as a percent, or in dollar terms. Adams, J. S. (1965). DIW Wochenbericht 87, 147152. WebGender wage gap is the difference in earnings between men and women and the difference has been an ongoing problem in the U.S. labor force. This week have examined three key social institutions: family, religion, and medicine. However, their main arena of daily interactions in which status hierarchies emerge and spread is likely to be within the university with other students. Structural aspects of distributive justice: a status value formulation, in Sociological Theories in Progress, Vol. StataCorp (2011). Less is sometimes more: consequences of overpayment on job satisfaction and absenteeism. The results show that the gender pay gap that observers experience influences their evaluations regarding the recipient's gender. The article is reproduced here with the permission of The Irish Times and of the author Professor William Reville, 12. Women began to notice how much more men got paid for the same amount of work which went against Americas founding viewpoint that all men are created equal. The difference is that in the previous study (Jasso and Webster, 1999), male and female students showed a tendency to favor female recipients. Jasso, G. (2007). Models 1 and 2 report the coefficients for the student sample. Norwegian Institute for Social Research (ISF), Norway, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, United States. Respondents living in federal states with high actual gender pay gaps produced a larger bias favoring men. Berger et al. Indust. In other words, the fact that gender is socially constructed does not undo the fact that there are strata of oppression between genders. The pressure that men feel from their colleagues at work is frustrating because the men want to be on the top and show that they can rule dictate their terms. Jann, B. The effects of vocational and university degrees are also significantly negative. Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. While the findings are reproducible with full population sample 2, they are not reproducible with full population sample 1 (gender pay gap of the federal state is statistically insignificant, although the coefficients have the same sign). This, leads to the androcentric culture in the society, where men are termed as monopolists who own the, workplaces. Assignment should Please structure your assignment as an essay, not as a list . Correlations of vignette dimensions for the population sample 2. They are the dominate sex who is seen to be smarter, better and more powerful in making decisions for himself, his family, his business, and etc. are available from the author. WebThe theoretical perspective that explains the issue of gender wage gap inequality is the conflict theory. Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., and Sauer, C. (2017). Additionally, both female and male respondents in the population samples are assumed to have similar status beliefs about gender. Therefore, not only data on justice perceptions but also information on the interactions of men and women in the workplace and organizations and on the inequality and power structures would be useful. Rev. 51, 123143. Jasso, G. (1978). CS conducted the survey and wrote the paper. (2012). An example of a vignette used is shown in Figure 1. Therefore, this study aims to investigate income trajectories and the differences regarding men and women. Res. On the other hand, the tests between the student sample and population sample 1 (2 = 37.18;p < 0.001) as well as population sample 2 (2 = 49.61;p < 0.001) revealed significant differences. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. In federal states located in West Germany (Schleswig-Holstein to Saarland) the gap varied between 18 percent and 28 percent, while in East Germany, the gap varied between 1 and 18% (Berlin included). The formalized evaluation can be stated as follows (Jasso, 1978): The justice evaluation J of an observer is equal to the logarithmic ratio of the actual rewards A and the just rewards C of a recipient. This study investigates the gender bias in justice evaluations by linking it to the inequality structure in which people are embedded. Although laws were passed in the United States to end the gender wage gap, women still suffer the unfair payment; therefore, the countrys governments needs to enforce or implement more laws to end the gap. The actual rewards (gross earnings) are directly given, while the just gross earnings are a hypothetical value observers regard as just for given recipients. Sociol. The men try to remain the dominant group in order to maintain the already established social order. 2. Competition, Meritocracy, and Pay and Tenure Outcomes). 1. 35, 382409. A. M., Kaschner, T., and Brodbeck, F. C. (2018). The analysis of full-time employees resembled the findings of the complete population sample. The second model in Table 6 provides the estimates for population sample 1. Therefore, men can be seen as the dominant group and women as the subordinate group. - Argues Time to Move Beyond "Gender Is Socially Constructed", Michael Mascolo Ph.D. , https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/old-school-parenting-modern-day-families/201907/time-move-beyond-gender-is-socially-constructed, 13.
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gender wage gap conflict theory